By: Professor Nandini Sahu

Abstract
A much neglected but significant part of our literary traditions, tribal literature, captures the complex socio-cultural and spiritual fabric of many native communities. Home of sixty-two tribes, Odisha has a corpus of tribal literature comprising oral traditions such as folk songs, myths and legends followed by contemporary written works. Through the application of appropriate literary theories, this research critically considers the aesthetic, cultural and philosophical underpinnings of narratives produced by tribal communities in Odisha, the leitmotif being the Kondh tribe from the Kandhamal district. While its focus is on some key texts from the region and then, Jagannath Cult, this study subsequently attempts to unveil the meanings and worldviews prevalent in these narratives and also tackles the alarming situation of protecting the vibrant oral traditions in the light of modernization paraphernalia that have brought about cultural homogenization. By doing so, it emphasizes the need to revise the place of tribal literature in the more significant and broader canon and take its rightful position in the engagement of Indian and world literatures.

Introduction: Background and Context

Odisha’s tribal population constitutes nearly 22% of the total state population and preserves a rich heritage baseline of indigenous cultures, languages and traditions. Out of its innumerable tribes, the second most undoubtedly enriched oral literary traditions are equally found in the population of Kondh, Santhal, Bonda, Saura, Juang and Gadaba. They maintain their collective memory through various literary genres– folktales, epics, songs, proverbs, riddles and ritual chants. These are not just art forms; these works embody lineage, systems of tribal knowledge systems and cosmologies that produce entire philosophies, all of which subvert Western ideas on literature.

A particularly remarkable example is the Kui language of the Kondh tribes cited from the Kandhamal district, Odisha. This Dravidian language is also an essential vessel for the oral literature of their culture. The Kondh oral epics and ritual songs have incredible references to Nature that initiate this research with the critical questions related to Ecocriticism, Green Cultural Studies, Blue Humanities, demonstrating the spirit of environmental protection and the ability of communities to elevate themselves. Similar stories are often interspersed with the larger Odia cultural environment, like tribal links to the Jagannath Cult,with the iconography of the idols and the traditions. Laxmi Purana, for example, is a documentation of a stimulating interleaving/interface of tribal and ‘mainstream’ religious practices. It shows Goddess Lakshmi attracting the members of forest-dwelling tribes and the subaltern into the ambit of her worshipping population.

Significance of Tribal Literature

Tribal literature, however, is much more than a form of art; it is part of their cultural heritage and social cohesion mechanism and reflects the community’s worldview. However, these oral traditions have long been excluded from mainstream literary criticism, often dismissing them as too primitive or unsophisticated to be taken seriously. Such marginalization tends to neglect the intricate narrative devices, philosophical delusions and socio-political critiques that tribal literature can represent. This study uses modern literary theories to underline the intrinsic value of Odisha’s tribal literature in its re-examination and re-thinking. It challenges the binaries of hierarchy between writing and orality, arguing in favour of the inclusion of tribal lores into contemporary Indian literary discourses. It also features the fluid interaction of tribal and ‘mainstream’ cultures — perhaps best illustrated by the tribal character of the Jagannath Cult. As such, this study not only brings a part of the tribal works into the canon of ‘literature-proper’ but also engages the contemporary scholars with their inevitable extinction in an age defined by homogenization and modernization.

Keeping the above hypothesis and objectives in mind, my research more or less deals with the  thematic and technical exploration of  a few pertinent tribal literary texts and the methodological tools for their interpretation. I can pin-point those as:

This research addresses the pertinent questions like:

1. How do tribal narratives like the Legend of Tara Tarini reflect the socio-religious structures of the Kondh tribe?
2. In what ways does the Kui language facilitate the preservation of Kondh oral literature?
3. How do Santhal and Saura tribal songs contribute to environmental awareness and Ethnomusicology through their narrative techniques?
4. What role does Laxmi Purana play in bridging tribal and mainstream Hindu traditions?
5. How can contemporary literary theories provide a framework for analyzing the thematic depth of Odisha’s tribal literature?

Thematic Exploration of Tribal Literary Texts, Folklore and Oral Narratives: The Kondh Tribe’s Legend of Tara Tarini

The Kondh tribe’s reverence for the goddess Tara Tarini is embedded in their folklore, serving as both spiritual guidance and cultural identity. During Chaita Parab, the epic narrative of Tara Tarini underscores divine protection and communal resilience. As M.K. Patro notes, “The priests of the Goddess originally belonged to the Kondh tribe, reflecting the deep tribal roots of Tara Tarini worship” (Orissa Review 159). One can get into the literary analysis of the legend using Structuralism, particularly Lévi-Strauss’s binary oppositions. The legend illustrates contrasts such as human vs. divine, Anthropocene vs Anthropocentric, Anthropocene vs Anthropomorphic and protection vs. vulnerability. Victor Turner’s concept of communitas applies here in a most subtle way as the festival and epic performance reinforce collective identity within the Kondh community.

Santhal Folktales: Bihanbora

The Santhal community’s Bihanbora Tales narrate the origins of life and humanity’s relationship with Nature, like the Creation Myths. Creation Myths are mystical stories that explain the origins of the universe, life, earth and humanity. They explain the beginnings of a social and natural aspect of the world. Creation myths are found in nearly all religious traditions and are often considered sacred accounts. Santhal folktales have a close association with the Creation Myths. Performances during the Karama festival of the Santhals symbolize life cycles and fertility. Scholars argue that “Santhal folktales encapsulate ecological wisdom, reflecting a harmonious coexistence with nature” (Choudhury 42). The research points for the study of the Santhal lore can be:

–Ecocriticism that highlights the environmental ethics inherent in Santhal storytelling.

— Archetypal Criticism which identifies universal motifs of creation and renewal, as observed by Northrop Frye.

Songs and Ballads: Saura Tribe’s Ritual Songs

Ethnomusicology is best practiced among the tribes. The Saura tribe uses ritual songs to mark life events, integrating spiritual and cultural narratives. These songs, directed at ancestral spirits, are laden with symbolic meaning. “Saura ritual songs serve as a bridge between the living and the spiritual realms, maintaining a balance in their worldview” (Meher 9). For a deeper understanding of the Saura songs and ballads, theoretical approaches may be pertinent:

— Anthropological Literary Criticism can analyze these songs within the context of Saura cultural systems.

— Imagist Theory can examine the vivid imagery in Saura songs, enhancing the connection between natural and spiritual worlds.

Bonda Tribe’s Lanja Epic

The Lanja Epic, performed during weddings, commemorates ancestral valor and reinforces social cohesion. “Bonda epics use repetitive phrases to ensure collective memory, aligning with Oral-Formulaic traditions” (Seth 64). The research points are:

— The Oral-Formulaic Theory reveals how Lanja utilizes stock phrases for memorization and oral performance.

— Heroic Criticism emphasizes themes of bravery and loyalty, foundational to the Bonda’s cultural values.

The Kui Language: A Medium of Tribal Expression: Linguistic Roots and Structure of Kui

The Kui language, spoken primarily by the Kondh tribe of Odisha, belongs to the South-Central branch of the Dravidian language family, alongside languages like Telugu and Tamil. Kui is particularly significant due to its role in preserving not just the tribal community’s everyday communication but also its rich oral literature, steeped in spiritual and ecological knowledge systems.

The language’s structure is characterized by its phonological richness and syntactic patterns, distinct from the Indo-Aryan languages predominant in the region. One key feature of Kui is its use of agglutination/cohesion, where affixes are added to root words to convey complex meanings. As linguist George L. Hart points out, “Agglutinative languages like Kui allow for great flexibility in meaning-making, which is ideal for the multifaceted and nuanced narratives common in tribal oral traditions” (Hart 142). This particular structural quality of Kui is ideal for encoding the levels of significance essential to Indigenous oral epics and rituals, producing a mode that carries abstract meaning alongside the material reality.

Besides the spoken word of Kui, which is indispensable to the tribal community, it also includes vital links with its culture. Kui functions as a medium for the tribe’s cultural knowledge, transmitted through oral literature and shared during rituals and festivals across generations. As A.K. Ramanujan observes in The Interior Landscape, “Language becomes how identity is forged, memories are preserved, and beliefs are passed on through generations” (Ramanujan 58). For the Kondh people specifically, Kui is far more than simply a method of communication; it is intertwined with their identity and social-spiritual life and serves as an archive of the tribe’s history, cosmology and worldview.

Role of Kui in Transmitting Kondh Oral Literature: the Paraphernalia of Nmemoculture

The Kui language is integral to the oral literature of the Kondh tribe. However, Kui is a spoken language and exists without any written text/script; thus, the oral tradition lives on in storytelling, songs, proverbs and chants. It helps the tribe store wisdom, cultural values and beliefs. Linguist Walter J. Ong has argued that “oral traditions serve as mechanisms for the communal transmission of cultural memory, with language itself acting as a storehouse of communal identity” (Ong 80). For the Kondh tribe, narratives in Kui comprise their oral epics, which are fundamental to their collective memory and a reminder of their belonging as part of one cultural and spiritual entity. The Legend of Tara Tarini is an oral epic which illustrates the role of Kui in the survival of the tribal narratives, and from this, one gets to know about its (Kondh) goddesses, local deities who they address as Drarani-Penu, who protects them with divine help [Ong 9]. Recited during the Chaita Parab festival, this narrative—besides religious importance—is crucial in maintaining the collective memory and bringing the communities together.

Through language, the Kondh tribal groups believe in touching the land and its people. In this sense, Kui language, an endangered language that needs archiving and documentation, is necessary for describing the tribe’s relationship with Nature through its ritual chants. Kondh tribal folk songs frequently tell the stories of their relationship with their land and deities. According to ethnomusicologist John Blacking, “Ritual music in tribal cultures functions as an act of communion between the human and the divine, reinforcing cultural values and spiritual relationships” (Blacking 126). By upholding Nature through Kui songs, these chants render the ancient relationship of the Kondh with Nature in all its original context.

Folktales, Proverbs and Rituals in Kui

The folklore of Kui is rich, portraying both the history and beliefs that people in this tribe brought with them through generations and manifestations of social behaviour. Consisting of folk poetry and tales recited in Kui, these oral narratives play a central role in the cultural lives of the Kondh people. Moreover, one of the most popular folklore, Legend of Tara Tarini, says that goddesses protected a tribe called Kondh from harm by killing evil forces. The story is full of layers and ideas, and Kui embraces the ambit of narrative as widely as possible in cases like this.One can quote Peter Burke  here, “Oral epics like the Legend of Tara Tarini embody a community’s understanding of the cosmic order, its fears, hopes, and values, which are articulated through mythic storytelling” (Burke 93). Another important type of the tribe’s oral literature is proverbs in Kui. As such, these are not only practical proverbs but also they convey memory, cultural wisdom and moral values. For example, the Kui saying Menda ra naak, samudra ra paani (The nose of the mouse is like the water of the sea) speaks to how something insignificant can be so important and it embodies the tribe’s connection with Nature’s complexities. The proverbs capture complex ideas about Nature, spirituality and social interaction with brevity and precision. Equally important in the tribe members’ spiritual practices are ritual chants in Kui. These are chanted in important life cycle events like birth, marriage, death and agricultural and seasonal rituals. During these rituals, the chants call upon blessings from ancestral spirits and deities and emphasize the tribe’s divine connection with Nature. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz observes, “Religious ritual in oral societies like that of the Kondh is not merely a performance but a reaffirmation of the cosmological order and the social fabric” (Geertz 150). Memorized in Kui, the chants hold together the tribe’s religion and culture, linking every generation to its ancestry.

Kondh Tribal Narratives and Environmental Ethos: Analysis of Kondh Oral Epics and Myths

Another aspect of the cultural fabric and green studies of the Kondh is their oral literature, which lives on through generations from grandparents to grandchildren and consists of stories about Konkani (today), about collectivism in them and also legendary tales. These epics and myths function as moral guides — how tribe members should behave with fellow humans and Nature. The Legend of Niyamgiri, reflecting the relationship between the Kondh people and their veneration for Niyamgiri mountain as well as for their deity, the Mountain God (Niyam Raja), is among some of the important oral epics. The sense of environment protection reflected in this myth depicts Nature as a resource and a player in the community’s spiritual and social life and an expression of the tribe’s environmental ethics.

An example of environmental stewardship illustrates how the ideas are connected in a Kondh oral epic, and in Legend of Niyamgiri, Niyam Raja, the mythical God of the mountains, feeds the Kondh people with all the crops this land produces. It is worked out in rituals and community gatherings, demonstrating the sacred connection of people to the mountain. In these stories, it is not that the gods dwell outside of Nature; rather, they are the archetypal forces of Nature that strive to balance out. As noted by anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, “The stories and rituals of the tribes…are not simply about gods, but about the dynamic interrelationship between humans and their environment” (Appadurai, The Ethnography of Environment, 105).

The Legend of Tara Tarini, an important myth from the folk traditions of the Kondh people, also mirrors those themes. Devika Tara Tarini is the protector and the provider; she gives them fertility, and they pray to her for the well-being of the community. In this myth, the goddess lives in Nature and leads the Kondh people through seasons, helping to grow and keep the Earth fertile. This story portrays the deep spiritual and physical connections between the tribe and land, emphasizing how Nature is sacred and crucial to their survival.

Themes of Environmental Stewardship, Community Resilience and Spiritual Connection to Nature

Myths surrounding environmental stewardship lie at the heart of how the Kondh people perceive their world, deeply imbued in their daily fabric. Their stories reflect a balance and equilibrium between humanity and Nature, where the green and the blue—the ground, woods, streams and mountain peaks–are considered sacred. The tribe, in some ways, has nourished the sustainable natural farming practices passed down through generations, an echo of their innate respect for Nature. They are grounded in a worldview that land is alive and needs to be cared for to continue thriving. The Myth of Niyamgiri is its best example of the community resistance. The Kondh feel that they will prosper if they continue to worship Niyam Raja and preserve their bond with the land. The tribe’s agricultural cycle is highly scientific and synchronized with the natural world. Regained by rituals, songs and dances, this spirituality of belonging that the Kondh expresses enables resilience against external forces. It also appears as a recurring theme in the oral epics of the Kondh tribe. For instance, the legend of the first harvest recounts how their forefathers faced a severe drought and were able to help each other by cooperating and showing reverence towards Nature. It emphasizes collective effort and reverence for the natural world as essential to the tribe’s well-being. “In times of hardship, the tribe looks to its ancestral knowledge, often stored in mythic form, to rebuild and renew its relationship with nature,” explains environmental scholar Robert Paehlke (Paehlke et al. 63).

In addition, the belief in living in proximity to Nature as an act of devotion and the emphasis on spirituality is also reflected in the ecological traditions of the Kondh tribe. The forest is not just a tithe of worldly goods and gain but a source of loss, emotional strength, spiritual wealth held by the gods. The sacred grove, or more generally sacred forest or sacred groves, is central to the tribe’s environmental ethics. Such groves are consecrated; they believe their ancestors dwell in them, so these areas are revered. The Kondh’s avoidance of hunting or gathering associated with species from these forests demonstrates respect for environmental stewardship. Seasonal migration is the strategy of survival for some Kondh communities till date.

Binary Opposition with Mainstream Environmental Stories

Kondh tribal myths and oral traditions present a radically different genealogical narrative of the complex interdependent relationship between humans and Nature than mainstream narratives about ecology. Although much recent environmentalism focuses on sustainability as a scientific or practical phenomenon, the narratives of the Kondh frame environmental care in decidedly spiritual and cultural terms. Whereas most Western environmental movements have leveraged policy and technology in the name of conservation, the approach of the Kondh is rooted in spiritual belief — they want their human beings to be a part of that natural cycle. Till date, that is. As Rachel Carson famously articulated in Silent Spring, mainstream environmental narratives have relied on the notion of saving Nature from human overexploitation. Carson also points out the deadly consequences of this human abuse — pesticide use in particular. Though parts of Carson’s critique of industrialization resonate with Kondh’s environmental narratives, the latter is a far more nuanced and holistic social and political interpretation less reliant on technological engagement. The Kondh do not maintain environmental integrity through technocratic green management but instead by honouring, performing rituals around and living in reciprocity with the environment.

The spiritual awareness in Kondh narratives is closer to Ecocriticism since it is a type of critical writing that deals with literature and Nature. Greg Garrard states, “Ecocriticism posits that literature serves not only as a reflection of nature but also as a tool for shaping our relationship with it” (Garrard, Ecocriticism, 58). These Kondh myths demonstrate a deep understanding of the interrelatedness of entire life. This view is evident in many Western discourses on environmental issues, where cultural existence and Nature are separate entities. This view is abounding in Jagannath Cult as well. In contrast, while Western environmental movements might deal with ecology through biodiversity or climate change, the Kondh conceptualize their relationship with Nature as reciprocation and coexistence. Thus, the tribe’s oral traditions offer an empowering example of environmental stewardship grounded in sustainability and a moral and spiritual obligation to the planet Earth.

The literary and ethnographic narratives of the Kondh tribe themselves contain an obscured lens into essentially wise methods of environmental stewardship, community resilience and spiritual connection to their world. An examination of the themes found in their oral epics reveals how these stories simultaneously reflect and influence the environmental awareness and practices of the Kondh people. Kondh’s narratives provide a deeper understanding of Nature as a living, spiritual being, unlike the evolution of ‘mainstream’ forms of environmentalism. Even when facing numerous environmental challenges in modern times, the continued survival of these practices demonstrate why one must incorporate Indigenous worldviews into modern environmental discussions.

The Tribal Roots of the Jagannath Cult and the Laxmi Purana: Historical and Cultural Links between the Jagannath Cult and Odisha’s Tribes

The Jagannath Cult, centered around Lord Jagannath of Puri, is a remarkable example of the syncretism between tribal and mainstream Hindu traditions. Historical records and scholarly analyses reveal that Jagannath worship’s origins are deeply rooted in Odisha’s tribal religious practices, the story of the origin of Lord Jagannath dating back to tribal king Vishwabasu (rebirth of Jara Shabar) and his elite son-in-law Vidyapati. Anncharlott Eschmann posits, “The Jagannath cult is an amalgamation of Vedic, Puranic and tribal elements, reflecting the dynamic interplay between various religious traditions in Odisha” (Eschmann 45).

The iconography of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra—devoid of human-like features—suggests an influence of Indigenous tribal art forms. Tribal deities such as the Kondh’s Tara Tarini and the Saura’s Thakurani share characteristics similar to those of the Jagannath trinity, symbolizing fertility and protection. The dark skin of Lord Jagannath stands for solidarity with the dark skinned/coloured people. The incomplete limbs of the trinity Gods indicate solidarity with the differently-abled. This divine connection underscores the assimilation of tribal deities into the Jagannath pantheon. R.C. Majumdar states, “The wood-carved idols of Jagannath likely evolved from tribal wooden totems, worshipped as manifestations of the divine” (Majumdar 73). The annual Rath Yatra (Chariot Festival) further highlights the tribal connection. The cooks, Daitapati, of the Jagannath temple are the progeny of the tribal groups, from the lineage of tribal King Vishwabasu. Scholars argue that the ritual of deities being pulled in chariots mirrors the ancient tribal practice of carrying idols through forests as a sign of reverence and protection. It may also be interpreted as demythification of the divine by bringing the gods to the Bada Danda/ main roads of Puri to meet the commoners, the marginalized, the subaltern. As P.K. Mishra observes, “The Rath Yatra symbolizes the mobility of tribal gods and the communal participation in worship, reflecting a shared heritage of collective celebration” (Mishra 108).

Analysis of the Laxmi Purana as a Site of Tribal Inclusion and Cultural Synthesis

The Laxmi Purana, a 15th-century text by Balaram Das, holds a unique place in Odia literature and religious discourse for its progressive depiction of caste and gender equality. The narrative revolves around Goddess Lakshmi, who visits the humble home of a dalit, tribal woman, Shreya Chandaluni, after being insulted by Lord Jagannath’s elder brother, Balabhadra, for associating with ‘lower-caste’ individuals. The story foregrounds themes of inclusivity, as Goddess Lakshmi’s act challenges the rigid caste hierarchies, dichotomies and highlights the spiritual purity of marginalized communities.

Bijoya Kumar Sahu notes, “The Laxmi Purana stands as a testimony to the egalitarian ethos inherent in Odisha’s religious traditions, emphasizing that devotion and righteousness transcend social and caste boundaries” (Sahu 56). The text is a powerful critique of orthodoxy, portraying the tribal woman as a vessel of divine grace and wisdom. Lakshmi’s subsequent estrangement from the Puri temple and her ultimate reconciliation highlight a moral lesson on the universality of spiritual values. The text can also be pertinently interpreted from Gender Discourses.

The cultural synthesis evident in the Laxmi Purana reflects a larger trend of incorporating tribal beliefs into mainstream religious practices. The narrative’s emphasis on hospitality, humility and reverence for Nature aligns with the core values of Odisha’s tribal communities. This synthesis has contributed to the unique identity of Jagannath worship, positioning it as an inclusive and evolving religious tradition.

Reflection of Tribal Worldviews in the Rituals and Iconography of Lord Jagannath

The rituals and iconography associated with Lord Jagannath offer profound insights into the tribal worldview, particularly their spiritual connection with Nature and cyclical time. Unlike the anthropomorphic representations common in mainstream Hinduism, the wooden idols of Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are abstract and symbolic. This stylistic choice resonates with the tribal practice of worshipping natural objects, such as stones, trees and wooden totems, as divine embodiments.

Victor Turner’s concept of communitas is vividly reflected in the rituals of the Jagannath Cult, where all social hierarchies are temporarily dissolved during festivals like Rath Yatra. “The festival is an enactment of collective unity, a ritual space where devotees from all walks of life—irrespective of caste or social status—participate equally,” writes Susan Bayly (Bayly 134). This mirrors tribal ceremonies, where communal participation is fundamental to spiritual expression.

The Anavasara ritual, during which the deities are secluded and worshipped in a non-public space, echoes the tribal practice of cyclical rejuvenation. During this period, the deities undergo a ritualistic renewal, paralleling the tribal belief in the cyclical regeneration of life and Nature. Furthermore, the Navakalevara ceremony, where the wooden idols of Lord Jagannath and his siblings are periodically replaced, symbolizes the continuity of life through death and rebirth—a theme central to many tribal cosmologies, originating from the Kondh tribal practices.

As Nityananda Patnaik states, “The Jagannath Cult is a living reflection of tribal philosophy, where nature, community and spirituality coexist in harmonious balance” (Patnaik 89). The blend of tribal and mainstream elements enriches religious practices of this cult. It challenges the rigid binaries between oral and written, tribal and classical, thus advocating for a more inclusive understanding of Indian spirituality.

Challenges in Preserving Tribal Literature: Impact of Modernization and Cultural Homogenization on Tribal Traditions

Modernization and cultural homogenization pose significant threats to the survival of tribal literature. As traditional communities integrate into modern socio-economic frameworks, their oral traditions often face abandonment. John Mbiti aptly notes, “The oral traditions of a people are not only their memory bank but also their identity and heritage” (Mbiti 34). However, globalization erodes these traditions by promoting a homogenized cultural narrative.

In Odisha, the younger generation of tribal communities is increasingly detached from their ancestral languages and practices, drawn instead to urban lifestyles. This shift has led to a gradual decline in the oral recitation of myths, folktales and ritual songs. This trend has also given birth to an alarming situation and the research thereof—Language Death. The Kui language of the Kondh tribe, for example, is endangered, with many younger speakers adopting Odia or Hindi as their primary language (Panda 84).Moreover, cultural homogenization often marginalizes indigenous worldviews by prioritizing dominant narratives. As Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o argues, “Language carries culture, and culture carries, particularly through orature and literature, the entire body of values by which we come to perceive ourselves and our place in the world” (Thiong’o 13). The loss of tribal languages, thus, signifies not just a linguistic crisis but a profound cultural dislocation.

Marginalization of Oral Literature in Mainstream Literary Discourse

Tribal literature, predominantly oral, has historically been sidelined in literary discourse. Mainstream criticism often views oral traditions as inferior to written literature, a perspective rooted in colonial and Eurocentric frameworks. Walter Ong observes, “Writing restructures consciousness” and privileges certain forms of knowledge over others (Ong 78). This bias has led to excluding oral narratives from the literary canon. In Odisha, the rich oral epics of tribes like the Kondh and Saura are rarely included in academic syllabi or literary anthologies. The Legend of Tara Tarini, a seminal Kondh epic, remains largely unrecognized outside tribal communities. This marginalization perpetuates a cultural hierarchy that devalues Indigenous knowledge systems.

The Cultural and Literary Significance of Preserving Tribal Literature

The importance of preserving tribal literature identity, on the one hand, helps indigenous communities to preserve their culture, and vice versa; this cultural preservation enriches the world’s literary treasure through prized literatures from the margins. A study such as this has the capacity to demonstrate that these tribal narratives provide a different perspective on human relations with nature, community and the divine. By doing so, they reconstruct dominant literary paradigms and offer alternative perspectives on familiar narratives that serve as the basis for broad human experiences of creation, survival and resilience. Tribal literature is a dynamic art form, constantly evolving and grounded in inherited wisdom. By preserving it, one ensures that these rich cultural archives remain accessible to generations to come, creating a bridge of identity between the past and their present. As Ruth Finnegan argues, “Oral traditions are not relics of the past but living expressions of human creativity” (Finnegan 11).

The Role of Government and Non-Government Initiatives in Preserving Tribal Heritage

Despite these challenges, various government and non-government initiatives aim to preserve tribal literature. The Odisha State Tribal Museum in Bhubaneswar plays a crucial role in documenting and showcasing tribal oral traditions. Additionally, initiatives like the Tribal Research Institute (TRI) focus on linguistic preservation and cultural documentation. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also contribute significantly. For instance, the NGO Gram Vikas has initiated storytelling workshops encouraging tribal youth to engage with their heritage. UNESCO highlights, “Safeguarding intangible cultural heritage requires a comprehensive approach, involving community participation, documentation and formal education” (UNESCO 15). These efforts underscore the importance of collaborative strategies in preserving tribal literature where Center for Adivasi Studies plays a seminal role.

Re-evaluating Tribal Literature: Towards a New Literary Paradigm by Application of Contemporary Literary Theories to Tribal Literature

Tribal literature offers fertile ground for applying contemporary literary theories. Structuralism, for instance, can be used to analyze the binary oppositions in tribal myths, such as human vs. divine or Nature vs. culture. Claude Lévi-Strauss argues, “mythical thought always works from the awareness of opposites towards their progressive mediation” (Lévi-Strauss 224). Similarly, Ecocriticism sheds light on the ecological consciousness inherent in tribal narratives. The Santhal Bihanbora folktales, which emphasize harmony between humans and Nature, align with Ecocritical themes of sustainability and interconnectedness (Senapati 45).

The binary opposition between oral and written traditions has long dominated literary discourses, often to the detriment of oral literature. However, scholars like Ruth Finnegan challenge this dichotomy, arguing that “oral literature is not a ‘primitive’ precursor to written literature but a complex and dynamic art form in its own right” (Finnegan 9). In Odisha, this binary can be deconstructed by recognizing oral literature’s performative and collective features. The ritual songs of the Saura tribe, for example, serve as living texts that evolve with each performance, demonstrating a fluidity and adaptability often absent in written works.

Positioning Odisha’s Tribal Literature in the Broader Indian and World Literary Canon

Odisha’s tribal literature, when critically engaged, can enrich the broader Indian and world literary canon. By incorporating tribal narratives into academic curricula and literary anthologies, scholars can challenge the existing paradigms of literary value. As Homi K. Bhabha asserts, “The move away from singularities of ‘class’ or ‘gender’ as primary conceptual and organizational categories has resulted in an awareness of the subject positions—of race, gender, generation, institutional location, geopolitical locale, sexual orientation—that inhabit any claim to identity in the modern world” (Bhabha 2). By situating tribal literature in these broader frameworks, we validate its literary merit and foster a more inclusive and pluralistic understanding of literature.

Conclusion: This humble attempt at research and close reading of the tribal discourses from Odisha has most conceivably underscored the immense cultural and literary value of tribal literature of the land. By analyzing the Kui language and the oral traditions of tribes such as those practised by the Kondh, Saura and Santhal, this research probes into the rich narrative frameworks, environmental knowledge and layers of spirituality inherent in these works. Select texts including the Legend of Tara Tarini and tribal hymns in praise of Nature sung by the Saura tribe critically engage with indigenous knowledge encoded within tribal literature through the principles of cultural hearing.

The future research on this subject may probe into the difficulties with modernization and cultural homogenization that put these oral traditions at risk, while rethinking on region specific tribal literatures being pushed to the periphery of conventional literary discourses. It demands a re-examination of its position in India and the New World’s literary histories. The polysemantic Nature of tribal narratives through some contemporary literary theories like Structuralism, New Historicism and Cultural Materialism problematize a hitherto simplistic dichotomy between oral and written traditions.

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• Sahu, Bijoya Kumar. “Lakshmi Puran and the Subaltern: A Literary Perspective on Caste and Gender.” Journal of Odia Literature and Culture, vol. 14, no. 2, 2018, pp. 55–72.
• Senapati, Ramesh Chandra. Folklore of Odisha: An Analytical Study. Atlantic Publishers, 2015.
• Seth, Sanjay. Ecological Ethics in Santhal Folktales. Springer, 2021.
• Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. James Currey, 1986.
• UNESCO. Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Urgency of Safeguarding Oral Traditions. UNESCO, 2003.

About Prof Nandini Sahu

Prof.Nandini Sahu, the Amazon Bestselling Author, is a major voice in contemporary Indian English literature. She has accomplished her doctorate in English literature under the guidance of Late Prof. Niranjan Mohanty, Prof. of English, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan. She has been widely published in India, U.S.A, U.K., Africa, Italy, Australia and Pakistan.  Apart from numerous other literary awards, she is a triple gold medalist in English literature; she has received the Gold Medal from the hon’ble Vice-President of India for her contributions to English Studies in India in the year 2019. She is the recipient of the prestigious Michael Madhusudan Academy Award, 2024 and Lifetime Achievement Award(SAFE),2024.  She is the author and editor of twenty-one books, The Other Voice, The, Recollection as Redemption, The Post-Modernist Delegation to English Language Teaching, The Post Colonial Space: Writing the Self and the Nation, Silver Poems on My Lips, Folklore and the Alternative Modernities (Vol.I), Folklore and the Alternative Modernities (Vol. II), Sukamaa and Other Poems, Suvarnarekha, Sita(A Poem), Dynamics of Children’s Literature, Zero Point and Selected Poems of Nandini Sahu(Winter-2020), Selected Poems of Nandini Sahu(Spring-2021), Re-reading Jayanta Mahapatra, A Song, Half & Half , Shedding the Metaphors, Collected Poems of Nandini Sahu, Collected Poems of Niranjan Mohanty and Hindu Studies: Foundations and Frameworks. She is the Former Director, School of Foreign Languages and currently a Professor of English at Indira Gandhi National Open University [IGNOU], New Delhi, India. Her areas of research interest cover Indian Literature, New Literatures, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, Hindu Studies, American Literature, Folk Literature, Children’s Literature and Critical Theory. She is the Chief Editor/Founder Editor of Interdisciplinary Journal of Literature and Language (IJLL), a bi-annual peer-reviewed journal in English. Professor Sahu has designed multiple academic programmes on Folklore and Culture Studies, American Literature, Postcolonial Literatures, British Poetry, Children’s Literature and Indian Philosophical Thoughts for IGNOU and many other universities.